The structure of DNA is composed up of base pairs, deoxyribose sugar, and phosphate. Each pair is either adenine with thymine (A with T) or guanine with cytosine, (G with C). DNA is shaped in the for of a double helix, or a twisted ladder. The outer part of the helix is made up of phosphate groups, which consist of deoxyribose sugar and phosphate. Then, going across the helix is a base pair. The paired bases simply join together across the gap between the strands of phosphate groups. Each phosphate group and base is a nucleotide. DNA is composed of various such nucleotides that twist in the form of a double helix.

DNA replicates by splitting from a double helix into two separate single helices. New nucleotides then form in the correct base pairs and make two new double helices.

When cells have gone through interphase, the first stage of their life cycle, they transistion into mitosis, the most common eukaryotic cell reproduction process. There are four phases of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During prophase, the nuclear membrane dissolves, and all of the DNA that was duplicated at the very end of interphase, each pair of duplicates is made up of two chromatids, condenses. In metaphase, the chromatids align across the equator of th cell. During anaphase, spindle fibers become visible and pull the paired chromatids in half. Each half goes to a separate end of the cell. Then, during telophase, a nuclear membrane begins to reform around each cluster of DNA. Mitosis is over. 

While plant and animal cells don't look the same, they are in the possession of many similar organelles, such as mitochondria, nuclei, endoplasmic reticulums, ribosomes, etc. After that, some differences start to occur. For example, while plant and animals both have cells with vacuoles, plant cells only have one huge one, that also carries out the duties of a lysosome, and animal cells have multiple smaller ones, that do naught but store things. Speaking of lysosomes, only animal cells have them, and they use them to break down waste and damaged or useless cell parts. Plants also use a process called "photosythesis" to make food, and have an organelle, called a chloroplast, specified for that job. While both types of cells have a cell membrane, only plant and bacteria cells have a cell wall.

Bacteria are very different from the other types of cells, and have no organelles that are bound by membranes. Instead of lying inside the nucleus, like it does in plant and animal cells, DNA is found floating around in the cytoplasm. The reason for that is that all known bacteria cells have no nucleus. Bacteria are generally prokaryotic, which differs them from the eukaryotic plant and animal cells. Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall, and no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.

The edible cell project is a fun one, and I think students enjoy it every year. The edible cell did help me remember the names and purposes of most of the cell parts, but I think Quizlet helped too. While the edible cell project is a good way for students to learn and reveiw the names of cell parts and organelles, I think that it would be easy for students to forget that the project has an educational purpose, becuase of its creative and food-oriented theme. I think that if the edible cell project is kept through the years, it should be repeated to students that they will need to remember names and functions or suffer grade-wise. 

I think that the cell project should be kept, despite its disadvantages, but think that the educational purpose of this project should be repeated to the students so they are not caught up in the inherent "fun" aspect. If that is done, the cell project will provide a creative and inventive way for students to learn names and definitions.

There are many parts of a cell, most of them are organelles, but three of them are mitochondria, lysosomes, and ribosomes. Mitochondria are covered in two membranes and break down nutrients to produce energy. Without energy, the cell wouldn't be able to perform its activities and would starve to death. Lysosomes act as the garbage-disposal of the cell and recycle waste, broken or injured cell parts, and other useless material. Lysosomes clear the space in a cell, without them, the cell would explode from a buildup of waste. Ribosomes are scattered throughout the cell, found in cytoplasm and on the rough ER. Ribosomes are not covered in a membrane, but create proteins that are necessary for almost every cell activity. The nucleolus makes ribosomes.

While I myself did not take measurements of rats, the first four colums are data I have received from a student in Mr. Kirste's science class. The other three columns are ratios of the measurements that I was given, and I have found some interesting patterns. In the mass/tail ratio, not counting the fluctuation between days 9 and 13, the ratio increased according to a semi-complex pattern: The pattern started at 14, and then the number of increase went down two in the ones, and up one in the tens. Because of that, 14 was added, then 22, then the fluctation, then 30. Another way of saying this is that, besides from Day 9-13, the increase amout went up by eight. On the tai/head ratio, again not counting 9-13, the numbers stayed centered around one half. On the mass/head ratio, 6 and 13 round to about the same, and the ratio of the difference between them is equal to them. Also on the mass/head ratio, after a longer period of time, the head almost surpasses the mass, and probably will in the future. As for averages, the tail average increase was 3.11 mm, the mass average increase was 1.41 grams, and the head circumference average increase was 2.18.

Out of all of the experiments we have done in Science so far, my favorite, with absolutely no contest, is using microscopes. In this experiment, my science class got to look at slices of a human body, one was unlabeled  the other was from an aorta. During this experiment, we learned safety rules that have to do with microscopes, such as never use the coarse adjustment knob when using the highest powered lens. We also learnt how to properly operate the stage clips, along with the lamp, nosepiece, and diaphragm. This lab also taught the class how things look up close, for example, when the aorta slide was first put in, my partner and I could barely see anything, but a few specks of dust, which we thought was part of the aorta. While the dust was extremely boring on the low and medium lenses, the high powered lens showed much detail, and was neat to look at before we found the aorta.

The reason that I am able to know that my cell are still performing their daily activities and processes is that I would be dead if they weren't. For example, cells perform the process of breaking down food into energy and using the energy to keep the heart beating, which keeps blood flowing, and so on. Cells also use that energy to extract oxygen from the air in the lungs which is used, along with water, in most cell processes that maintain homeostasis. Without homeostasis, any organisms becomes dangerously sick, and dies if homeostasis is not regained quickly enough. For example, part of homeostasis is a body temperature of 98.6 degrees Farenheight. Cells perform activities such as shivering and sweating to keep the body at that temperature. If cells were not carrying out their body heat regulation activities, the temperature would ethier rise or plummet, an act devastating to the organism. Cells also remove waste from themselves and the rest of the body. If waste was not removed, the inner workings of the human body would be stretched, possibly to the point of tearing from a buildup of dead cells and other matter. Cells also tell the body if they need more water, oxygen, food, etc. This is responsible for the reflex to breathe, and the urge to eat and drink, or thirst and hunger. Cells are also responsible for growth and change in the body, as they multiply themselves, and without cells growing in number and developing according to DNA, humans would stay babies forever. Those are only some of the activities cells carry out, there are many more that happen every day.

One trait I inherited from both my parents is my eyes. Many people comment on them, since they are now a blue-green, but mostly blue like they were when I was younger. I have two sisters, and both of them also have blue eyes. Also, both my parents are relatively tall, my dad being 6 ft 2 in, and my mom 5 ft 7 in. My pediatrician says that I should top out at a height of 6 ft 4 in, and I am growing according to his predictions. One trait that skipped my dad's generation, is that my grandparents on his side have lighter hair. While my dad and I have hair more on the darker side, my sisters have both blond and light brown hair. Also, one of my sister's face is shaped a lot like my grandfather's on my father's side.

I think that it is very interesting that some traits are carried down through DNA, while others are not; and that children are similar to their parents in a mental way, because parents are the prominent role model in a child's life, so when developing, the child would model it's way of speaking and occasionally, acting after his or her parents.

To find the volume of a box shaped object or an other object with all flat sides is easy, there's a formula to follow. But there's no formula for irregular shaped object, like pebbles or erasers, so scientists use the displacement method. How the displacement method works is that, first, the scientist fills up a beaker, flask, or graduated cylinder big enough to hold the object, with enough water to cover the object. Then, the scientist measures the meniscus, or lowest point, of the water, and records it. Then the object is dropped in, and the new meniscus is recorded. The scientist then finds the difference between the two meniscuses  in millliliters and converts it to cubic centimeters.

When measuring the meniscus during the displacement method, or any time when measuring liquid volume, it is important to note the increments of measurement on the container. For example, if you think that each line is 25 mL, and it is really 50mL than everything will be off.